Mars Interpretatio

Mars is the Roman god that Celtic deities were most frequently interpreted as (perhaps no less than 131 surviving examples) in surviving epigraphy. This article aims to collect each epigraph that interprets a Celtic deity as “Mars”. Please note that it is a work-in-progress, not presumed to be complete, and that it does not include any examples of these interpreted Celtic theonyms in isolation (e.g. Lenus may be attested by that name alone in some instances, but the reader will only find Lenus Mars inscriptions here).

NOTE: At this time, the article is essentially only counting examples of these theonyms rather than presenting the epigraphy proper, or even the precise form of these theonyms as attested (i.e., all forms here are in an artifically whole, nominative case whereas the inscriptions themselves almost assuredly will involve dative and genitive cases primarily as well as abbreviations or damage).

Also note that tertiary sources were used to compile this material, and all information will need to be cross-referenced with reputable databases or published works before being used in scholarship or publication.

Interpreting Roman Mars Himself

Today, we may only imagine or hazard a guess as to exactly what aspect of a given god caused the Celts and Romans to identify Him with Mars. But before we begin examining this question in the Celtic context, we must first understand how the Romans viewed Mars themselves. While the obvious connection to Mars would be that of war (and indeed, the frequently-attested, transregional Celtic Mars cultūs were likely carried far-and-wide by soldiers mobilized by Rome), it is worth bearing in mind that every deity is nuanced, varied, and complex in ways that pigeonholing or “typecasting” simply cannot do justice. As a case-in-point, the Romans understood Mars to fill a variety of roles.

The following must not be mistaken for an exhaustive analysis of the God Mars by any stretch, nor as a citable reference proper. But the following should offer some food-for-thought or a launchpad for further research, as well as some insight into the pre-existing Roman context and tradition of Mars’ epithets. Consider the following roles that Mars appears to have played in Roman religious life, as indicated by His many Roman epithets:

• Mars Gradivus --- by whom a general or soldiers might swear an oath to be valorous in battle. His cult title is most often taken to mean “the Strider” or “the Marching God,” from gradus, “step, march.” Gradivus is asked -- along with Capitoline Iuppiter and Vesta, as the keeper of Rome’s perpetual flame -- to “guard, preserve, and protect” the state of Rome, the peace, and the princeps.
• Mars Quirinus --- the protector of the Quirites (“citizens” or “civilians”) as divided into curiae (citizen assemblies), whose oaths were required to make a treaty. As a guarantor of treaties, Mars Quirinus is thus a god of peace: “When he rampages, Mars is called Gradivus, but when he’s at peace Quirinus.” Quirinus was also worshipped as a separate deity, sometimes forming part of a triad alongside Mars.
• Mars Grabovius --- The same title is given to Iuppiter and to the Umbrian deity Vofionus. This triad has been compared to the Archaic Triad, with Vofionus equivalent to Quirinus. As part of a complex ritual, Mars Grabovius received three oxen.
• Mars Pater --- “Mars the Father” is the form in which the god is invoked in the agricultural prayer of Cato, as well as many other sources. Mars Pater is among the several gods invoked in the ritual of devotio, by means of which a general sacrificed himself and the lives of the enemy to secure a Roman victory. Although pater and mater were fairly common as honorifics for a deity, any special claim for Mars as father of the Roman people lies in the mythic genealogy that makes Him the divine father of Romulus and Remus.
• Mars Silvanus --- Cato prescribes a votum to Mars Silvanus to promote the health of cattle.
• Mars Ultor --- “The Avenger”, Augustus required the Senate to meet at His temple when deliberating questions of war and peace. The temple also became the site at which sacrifice was made to conclude the rite of passage of young men assuming the toga virilis (“man’s toga”) around age 14. On various Imperial holidays, Mars Ultor was the first god to receive a sacrifice, followed by the Genius of the emperor.
• Mars Augustus --- The honorific marks the affiliation of a deity with Imperial cult. An inscription in the Alps records the gratitude of a slave who dedicated a statue to Mars Augustus as conservator corporis sui, the preserver of his own body, said to have been vowed ex iussu numinis ipsius, “by the order of the numen himself”

Theonyms by Frequency

More than Thrice

Britannia

• Belatucadrus x5 (Belado included? Would make up to eight)
  • Carvetii, Selgovae, and Unknown territories.
• Condatis x4
  • Found among the Birgantes and Votadini territories.
• Toutatis x4
  • Unclear whether Toutatis belongs here, as it may not be the case that He was interpreted with Mars in each instance (additional source material that was used for this basis is incomplete).
  • Perhaps also interpreted with Cocidius, but note that this must be verified against reputable sources.
  • Found at least once in Catuvellauni territory of Britain, as well as an instance in Noricum.

Germania

Superior

• Caturix x4
  • Among the Helvetii, at Limes Germanicus, and elsewhere in Switzerland.

Transregional

Deities will be categorized here by where the most inscriptions have been found, keeping in mind that these deities were attested across multiple regions.

Gallia Aquitania

• Rigisamus x4
  • Possibly does not belong in this category, as Riga and Rigonemetis variants are also counted in this. No “home region” can be ascertained for these theonyms as they are equally split between Gaul and Britain.
  • Found at least among Bituriges Cubi territory in Aquitania as well as the Dutoriges in Britain.

Gallia Lugudensis

• Camulos x7
  • Menapii, Remi, Treveri, but also once each in Limes Germanicus, among the Cugerni in Germania Inferior, and in Britain at the Antonine Wall and in Trinovantes territory.
• Cicolluis x5?
  • Primarily found in the Côte d’Or region of France (Mandubii territory in Lugudensis), as well as in Lingones and Cugerni territories in Germania Superior and Inferior, respectively.
• Lenus x11?
  • Variants: Lænus
  • Notable for having third bynames or theonyms
  • Found among the Treveri, the Ubii (Germania Inf.), and the Dobunni and Silures territories in Britain. Probably additional German and Luxembourgish attestations are not listed here, which may move Lenus’ chief region to Germania.
• Mullo x4
  • Consonant stem? If so, note the nominative ending will be -ū in Celtic.
  • Found among Adecavi, Aulerci Cenomani, Namnetes, and Redones territories.
• Segomo x4
  • Consonant stem? In which case, the Celtic nominative would end in -ū rather than ‘o’.
  • Found in Aedui, ambarii, and Seguisiavi territories, and also in Germania amongst the Sequani.

Germania Superior

• Cnabetius x4
  • Found among the Agri Decumates and Limes Germanicus of Germania Superior, as well as the Mediomatrici in Lugudensis.
• Loucetios x13
  • Also, the Leucetius variant accounts for 5 of these in our records
  • Found primarily in Germania among Agri Decumates, Limes Germanicus, and Mattiaci, Sequani, Vangiones territories. Also known in Britain among the Belgae and in Lugudensis in Adecavi territory.

Thrice

Britannia

• Cocidius
  • Brigantes, Carvetii, and Selgovae territories.
• Nodons
  • Also, Nudens?
  • Carvetii, Silures territories.

Gallia Narbonensis

• Belado
  • May not belong here, if these relate to Belatucadros. However, geographic distance may militate against such a link.
  • Salluvii, Sogionti, and Vocontii territories.
• Nabelcus
  • In Vocontii territory.
• Rudianus
  • Drôme and Var, France?

Noricum and Panonnia

• Armogius
  • Also, Harmogius, Marmogius
  • Perhaps as many as six of these inscriptions, in Austria, Croatia, and Hungary, but the data is unclear and corroborating sources not available in English.
• Latobius

Twice

Britannia

• Alator
  • Also, Alator Dum(...)
  • Brigantes and Catuvellauni territories.
• Ocelus
  • Carvetii and Silures territories.

Gallia Aquitania

• Leherennus
  • Also, Leherennis? If Lelhunnus is related, it may be a third example, also in Aquitania.
  • Convenae territory

Germania Inferior

• Halamardus
  • Also, with ‘ð’ in place of ‘d’?
  • Baetasii territory

Maritime Alps

• Leucimalacus
  • Italy

Gallia Narbonensis

• Albiorix
  • Also, Albioricus
  • Vocontii and Vulgientes territories.
• Divanno
  • Volcae Areomici and Vulgientes territories.
• Masuciacus
  • Vocontii territory.

Hispania

• Tilenus
  • Also, Tillenus. Any relation to Lenus?
  • Quintana del Marco and Quintana del Marco, Spain.

Transregional

• Olloudius
  • Also, Olludius?
  • Found in Deciates (Gal. Narbonensis) territory as well as Gloucestershire in Britain?
• Smertrios
  • Also, Smertulitanus? If not connected, this entry doesn’t belong here.
  • Found in Vangiones territory of Germ. Sup., Smertulitanus is in Treveri territory in Lugudensis.

Hapaxes

Britannia

• Barrex --- Carvetii
• Braciacae --- Brigantes
• Corotiacus --- Trinovantes
• Medocius --- Trinovantes
• Thincsus --- Northumberland

Gallia Aquitania

• Arixo --- Convenae
• Cososus --- Bituriges Cubi
• Lavictus --- Pouzac
• Randosas --- Arverni
• Sutugius --- Convenae
• Tritullus --- Gabali
• Vorocius --- Arverni

Gallia Narbonensis

• Britovius --- Nîmes
• Bruatus --- Cavares
• Budenicus --- Salluvii
• Buxenus --- Cavares
• Giarinus --- Segobrigii
• Lacavus --- Volcae Areomici
• Melovius --- Volcae Areaomici
• Ugius? --- Gard Sutugius?

Gallia Lugudensis

• Allema(...) --- Nièvre
• Bolvinnus --- Nièvre
• Intarabus --- Treveri
• Iovantucarus --- Treveri
• Vegnius --- Treveri
• Vicinnus --- Redones
• Volmio --- Treveri

Germania Superior

• Caisivus --- Helvetii
• Exalbiovix --- Limes Germanicus
• Magianus --- Raurici
• Noadatus --- Mainz, see Nondatus in Limes Germanicus?

Maritime Alps

• Dop(...) --- Castelmagno, Italy
• Cemenelus --- Vediantii
• Leusdrinus --- Nerusi
• Vintius --- Nerusi
• Veracinius --- Les Mujouls

Pennine Alps

• Motm(...) --- Veragri

Hispania

• Cariociecus --- Tuy, Spain
• Borus --- Portugal
• Neto --- Spain
• Semnocosus --- Denia, Spain
• Tarbucelis --- Braga, Portugal

Many-Named

These examples feature three or more theonyms in the inscription. This should be approached with caution, as it’s ambiguous whether these were meant as additional bynames for the same god, or if multiple gods are being listed. Invocations can be list-like with no connecting words (Robert Schilling, “Silvanus,” in Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981. Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion. Brill, 1992.)

• Mars Alator Dum(...)
  • D MARTI ALATORI DVM[...] (RIB 218)
  • Sources take for granted that DVM is part of the theonym rather than the dedicant Censorinus’ nomen, although Dumerius is an attested nomen elsewhere. If sources are correct to make this assumption, then perhaps it can be compared to the Dumiatis accompanying a votive Mercury statue from Puy-de-Dôme, now lost. It may potentially have an etymological link to the month Duman[ios] from the Coligny Calendar.

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• Mars Carrus Cicinus
  • Gallia Narbonensis, Vocontii territory --- CIL XIII, 2532; XII, 356

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• Mars Divanno Dinomogetimarus
  • Gallia Narbonensis, Volcae Areomici territory.

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• Mars Latobius Harmogius Toutatis Sinatis Mogetius
  • MARTI LATOBIO HARMOGIO TOVTATI SINATI · MOG (CIL Vol. III 5320)
  • The ‘H’ may very well be a misreading. The transcription is received from the CIL, which is rather dated. Other sources, such as De Bernardo Stempel, indicate Marmogius.
  • Could be several different gods listed here, though the inscription is ambiguous. De Bernardo Stempel interprets two tri-named gods according to her theonymic framework, and the manner in which the inscription was made. DBS points out how TOVTATI does not flow with the rest of the text and was perhaps added on later. She proposes a rearranged word order, with TOVTATI following SINATI.
  • Three, bi-named gods could remain plausible, as Mars was frequently worshipped by Romans as part of a triad and the order in which inscriptions were written or the way they cramped or abbreviated seems to rarely be meaningful to the message itself.
  • Noricum

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• Riocalatis Toutatis Mars Cocidius
  • RIB 1017; RIB’s translation views this as three separate gods, “Riocalatis,” “Toutatis,” and “Mars Cocidius”. The presumption that each Celtic theonym indicates a separate god while the Roman one does not would seem a double standard. Perhaps DBS’s framework should be applied here for better analysis. For now, the division of these deities appears ambiguous.
  • Britannia

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• Mars Segomo Dunatis
  • DEO MARTI SEGOMON[I] DVNATI CIL XIII, 2532
  • Gallia Lugudensis, Ambarii territory

NOTE: Mars Albarinus does not have a “Curmissus” epithet as some sources believed. “Curmissus” is the patronym of the dedicant, but the damage to the inscription caused the letter ‘F’ (for filius) to be overlooked.

Questioned

• (...)idonius Mars?
• Albiorix Mars?
• Belado? Mars?
• Camulos Mars?
• Caturix Mars?
• Condatis Mars?
• Halamardus? Mars?
• Lelnus? Mars?
• Olloudius? Mars?
• Rego Mars?
• Ambiomarcus Mars, Hercules, Mercury
• Esus Mars, Mercury
• Ocelus Mars, Vellaunus

Theonyms by Region and Tribe

Gallia Narbonensis

Allobroges

• Rudianus Mars

Cavares

• Bruatus Mars
• Buxenus Mars

Deciates

• Olloudius Mars

Memini

• Albarinus Mars
• Sabelcus Mars

Salluvii

• Belado Mars
• Budenicus Mars

Segobrigii

• Giarinus Mars

Sogionti

• Belado Mars

Verucini

• Rudianus Mars

Vocontii

• Albiorix Mars
• Belado Mars
• Carrus Cicinus Mars
• Masuciacus Mars
• Nabelcus Mars
• Rudianus Mars

Volcae Areomici

• Dinomogetimarus Mars
• Divanno Mars
• Lacavus Mars
• Melovius Mars
• Metorius Mars

Vulgientes

• Albioricus Mars
• Divanno Mars

Gallia Lugudensis

Aedui

• Segomo Mars

Ambarii

• Segomo Duntis Mars

Adecavi

• Loucetius Mars
• Mullo Mars

Aulerci Cenomani

• Mullo Mars

Mandubii

• Cicolluis Mars

Namnetes

• Mullo Mars

Redones

• Mullo Mars
• Vicinnus Mars

Segusiavi

• Segomo Mars

Senones

• Allema[...]Mars
• Boluinnus Mars

Mediomatrici

• Cnabetius Mars

Menapii

• Camulus Mars

Remi

• Camulus Mars

Treveri

• Camulus Mars
• Gnabetius Mars
• Intarabus Mars
• Iovantucarus Mars
• Laenus Mars
• Lenus Arterancus Mars
• Lenus Exsobinius Mars
• Lenus Mars
• Smertulitanus Mars
• Vegnius Mars

Tungri

• Volmio Mars

Gallia Aquitania

Arverni

• Randosatis Mars
• Vorocius Mars

Bituriges Cubi

• Cososus Mars
• Mogetius Mars
• Rigisamus Mars

Convenae

• Arixo Mars
• Dahus Mars
• Leherennis Mars
• Leherennus Mars
• Sutugius Mars

Gabali

• Tritullus Mars

Tarbelli

• Lelhunnus Mars
• Lelnus Mars

Germania Superior

Agri Decumates

• Cenabetius Mars
• Cnabetius Mars
• Loucetius Mars

Helvetii

• Caisivus Mars
• Caturix Mars

Limes Germanicus

• Arm(ogius) Mars
• Camulus Mars
• Caturix Mars
• Cnabetius Mars
• Exalblovix Mars
• Loucetius Mars
• Nondatus Mars

Lingones

• Cicolluis Mars

Mattiaci (right bank)

• Leucetius Mars

Raurici

• Magianus Mars

Sequani

• Segomo Mars
• Visontius Mars
• Loucetius Mars

Vangiones

• Leucetius Mars
• Loucetius Mars
• Smertrius Mars

Germania Inferior

Baetasii

• Halamard(us) Mars

Cugerni

• Camulus Mars
• Cicolluis Mars

Ubii

• Lenus Mars

Britannia

Belgae

• Loucetius Mars
• Nemetona Olludius Mars

Brigantes

• Alator Mars
• Braciaca Mars
• Cocidius Mars
• Condatis Mars

Carvetii

• Barrex Mars
• Belatucadrus Mars
• Cocidius Mars
• Nodons Mars
• Ocelus Mars

Catuvellauni

• Alator Dum(...) Mars
• Sediarum Mars
• Toutatis Mars

Coritani

• Rigonemetis Mars

Dobunni

• Lenus Mars

Durotriges

• Rigisamus Mars

Antonine Wall

• Camulus Mars

Hadrian’s Wall

Parisi

• Rigas Mars

Selgovae

• Belatucadrus Mars
• Cocidius Mars

Silures

• Lenus Mars
• Ocelus Mars
• Nodons Mars
• Nudens Mars

Trinovantes

• Corotiacus Mars
• Medocius Campesium Mars

Votadini

• Condatis Mars

Unsorted

• Belatucadrus Mars
• Belatucairus Mars
• Cocidius Mars

Maritime Alps

Nerusi

• Leusdr[i]nus Mars
• Vintius Mars

Vediantii

• Cemenelus Mars

Unsorted

• Leucimalacus Mars

Pennine Alps

Nantuates

• Sedatus

Seduni

• Cantismerta

Veragri

• Motm[...] Mars

Hispania Tarraconensis

Unsorted

• Cariociecus Mars

Noricum

• Harmogius Mars
• Latobius Mars
• Mogetius Mars
• Sinatis Mars
• Toutatis Mars

Panonnia Superior

Unsorted

• Marimogius Mars