Case |
Indicates |
Sample case words |
Sample sentence |
Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
Subject of a finite verb |
we |
We went to the store. |
Corresponds to English's subject pronouns. |
Accusative |
Direct object of a transitive verb, exclamations* |
us, |
The clerk remembered us. |
Corresponds to English's object pronouns and preposition for construction before the object, often marked by a definite article the. Together with dative, it forms modern English's oblique case. *Cf. Latin "exclamatory accusative". Constructs such as "(I wish you a) happy birthday!" may omit the subject and verb, but still inflect as accusative implicitly. |
Dative |
Indirect object of a verb |
us, |
The clerk gave us a discount. |
Corresponds to English's object pronouns and preposition to construction before the object, often marked by a definite article the. Together with accusative, it forms modern English's oblique case. |
Ablative |
Movement away from |
from us |
The victim went from us to see the doctor. |
|
Genitive |
Possessor of another noun |
's, |
John's book was on the table. |
Roughly corresponds to English's possessive (possessive determiners and pronouns) and preposition of construction. |
Vocative |
Addressee |
John |
John, are you all right? |
|
Locative |
Location, either physical or temporal |
in China, |
We live in China. |
Roughly corresponds to English prepositions in, on, at, and by and other less common prepositions. |
Instrumental |
A means or tool used or companion present in/while performing an action |
with a mop, |
We wiped the floor with a mop. |
Corresponds to English prepositions by, with and via as well as synonymous constructions such as using, by use of and through. |
The following hypothetical reconstructions for noun inflection are derived from David Stifter, Alan Ward (to the extent that his reconstructions have not been outmoded), and the Wikipedia article. Please note that orthographic variances between sources may not be fully reckoned with at this time. Inflections listed with multiple endings given may reflect instances where the differences between source material could not be reconciled.
Note: For vowel-stem nouns, all consonant endings are additive while vowel endings are substitutive. E.g.:
*sanesto- + -s = sanestos\ *sanesto- + -ī = sanestī
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
-s |
-o(u) |
-(o)i |
Vocative |
-e |
-o(u) |
-ūs |
Accusative |
-m |
-o(u) |
-ūs |
Genitive |
-ī, si̭o |
-ū(s) |
-m |
Dative |
-ū(i) |
-bim* |
-bis* |
Ablative |
-ū |
-bim |
-bis |
Instrumental |
-ū |
-bim |
-ūs |
Locative |
-ei |
-ou |
-bis |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Voc., Acc. |
-m |
-ou? |
-ā |
Genitive |
-ī |
-ūs? |
-m |
Dative |
-ūi, -ōi* |
-bom |
-bos |
Ablative |
-ū |
-bim |
-bis |
Instrumental |
-ū |
-bim |
-ūs |
Locative |
-ei |
-ou |
-bis |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
- |
-ai |
-s |
Vocative |
- |
-ai |
-s |
Accusative |
-m |
-ai |
-s |
Genitive |
-s |
-ou, -ajous |
-om |
Dative |
-āi |
-bim* |
-bis |
Abl., Instr. |
-ī |
-bim |
-bis |
Locative |
-āi |
-bim |
-bis |
Identical to feminine except:
Case |
Singular |
---|---|
Nominative |
-s |
According to David Stifter, the noun *bena- was inflected identically to regular ā-stems, except that the initial letter may shift from \'b\' to \'m\' in some cases:
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
b- |
m/b- |
m/b |
Vocative |
b- |
m/b- |
m/b- |
Accusative |
b- |
m/b- |
m/b- |
Genitive |
m/b- |
b- |
b |
Prepositional |
m/b- |
m/b- |
m/b- |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
-s |
-ī |
-ī(e)s |
Vocative |
-(s) |
-ī |
-īs |
Accusative |
-m |
-ī |
-īs |
Genitive |
-eis, -ēs |
-jou(s) |
-jom |
Dative |
-ei, -mi |
-bom, -ibim |
-bos, -bis |
Ablative |
-ī |
-bom |
-bis |
Instr., Loc. |
-ī |
-bim |
-bis |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Voc.*, Acc. |
- |
-ī |
-jā |
Genitive |
-eis, -ēs |
-jou(s) |
-jom |
Dative |
-ei, -ī |
-bom, -bim |
-bos, -bis |
Abl., Instr., Loc. |
-ī |
-bim |
-bis |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
-s |
-ou, -ū |
-owes |
Vocative |
- |
-ou, -ū |
-owes, -ūs |
Accusative |
-m |
-ou, -ū |
-ūs |
Genitive |
-ous |
-owou |
-owom |
Dative |
-ou, -ū, -oṷei̭ |
-bom, -bim |
-bos, -bis |
Abl., Instr., Loc. |
-ū |
-bim |
-bis |
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Voc.*, Acc. |
- |
-ou, -ū |
-wā, -ū |
Genitive |
-ous |
-owou |
-owom |
Dative |
-ou, -ū, -ouei |
-bom, -bim |
-bos, -bis |
Abl., Instr., Loc. |
-ū |
-bim |
-bis |
Note: For velar and dental stems, all endings are additive except for the nominative and vocative singular cases. In these cases, the endings are substitutive because the velar consonants are fricated and dentals devoiced. E.g.:
*rīg- + -xs = rīxs\ *druwid- + -ts = druwits
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
-xs, ts |
-e |
-es |
Vocative |
-xs, -ts |
-e |
-es, ās |
Accusative |
-am, em* |
-e |
-ās |
Genitive |
-os |
-ou |
-om |
Dative |
-ei, -i |
-obom, -obim |
-obos, -bis |
Ablative |
-ī |
-obim |
-obis |
Instrumental |
-e |
-obim |
-obis |
Locative |
-i |
-obim |
-obis |
Except where noted below, all masculine and feminine nasal stem inflections are the same as other consonant stems, as exemplified in the preceding velar and dental stem class.
Note: Endings beginning in \'m\' are substitutive as are the nominative and vocative singular cases. All others are additive. E.g.:
*talamon- + -ū (nom. sg.) = talamū\ *talamon- + -mbis = talamombis\ *talamon- + -es = talamones
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Voc. |
-ū |
-es |
|
Dative |
-mbim |
-mbis |
Stifter posits the following for neuter nasal and n-stem nouns. Wikipedia agrees in regards to the singular nominative and vocative cases, but otherwise adheres to the previously established consonant stem inflections.
Duals are unknown. The inflectional endings for singular prepositional are substitutive.
Case |
Singular |
Plural |
---|---|---|
Nominative |
- |
-ā |
Vocative |
- |
? |
Accusative |
? |
-ā |
Genitive |
-ēs |
-om |
Prepositional* |
-enei, -eni |
-mbis |
Wikipedia posits that s-stems typically end in -es-, and it provides an inflection paradigm that differs significantly from Stifter. Because neither Stifter nor Matasović is in apparent agreeance with this, only Stifter\'s paradigm will be provided. All inflectional endings are substitutive. E.g.:
*nemos- + -isos = nemisos
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Acc. |
- |
? |
-isa |
Genitive |
-isos |
-isou (?) |
-isom |
Prepositional* |
-isei, -isi |
-izbim (?) |
-izbis |
With the exception of the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases, all inflections delete the vowel that precedes the word-final \'r\'. E.g.:
*fatīr + -es = fatīres\ *fatīr + -os = fatros
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative |
-, -i- |
-e |
-es |
Vocative |
- |
-e |
-es |
Accusative |
-am |
-e |
-ās |
Genitive |
-os |
-ou |
-om |
Dative |
-ei |
-ebom, -ibim |
-eibos, -ibis |
Abl, Loc. |
-ī |
-ebim |
-ebis |
Instrumental |
-e |
-ebim |
-ebis |
The exemplary irregular r-stem noun is *swes-ūr/*swe(s)r-, \'sister\'. The nominative, vocative, and accusative utilize the former stem while genitive and dative utilize the latter. The former stem\'s inflectional endings are substitutive while the latter\'s endings are additive. E.g.:
*swes-ūr + -ore = swesore\ *swer- + -ros = swerros
Case |
Singular |
Dual |
Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nom., Voc. |
- |
-ore |
-ores |
Accusative |
-oram |
-ore |
-ores |
Genitive |
-ros |
-rou |
-rom |
Dative |
-rei |
-ribim |
-ribis |